Many theories of crime are macro theories used to explain crime based on a large group of people or society. Although macro theories are the predominant type of theory used to explain crime, there are also a variety of “individual,” or micro, factors that are equally important. Two of these individual factors are maternal cigarette smoking (MCS) and cognitive ability, or Intelligence Quotient (IQ). MCS has been shown to have a negative impact on the neurological development of the fetus, with serious damage to the nervous system. Medical studies have also concluded that smoking during pregnancy is a known cause of fetal hypoxia, or lack of oxygen, which can stunt fetal brain development. Studies have suggested that these physical impacts can hinder the development of cognitive skills and cause antisocial behavior, which in turn can be linked to criminal behavior. (Piquero, Gibson, et al, 2002, Pg. 232) In 1999, a study conducted by Patricia Brennan concluded that maternal cigarette smoking was a predictive factor for both violent and nonviolent crimes. (Piquero, Gibson, et al, 2002, Pg. 235) This study also concluded that lack of cognitive abilities due to maternal cigarette smoking can lead to the development of antisocial behavior. Children who suffer from these effects become adults who are less likely to resist the temptation of crime and show signs of deviant behavior. Cognitive abilities, or our IQ, are basic abilities that allow us to learn, solve problems, and perform simple tasks. . Cognitive ability is important when attempting to explain crime because it has been suggested that individuals with low cognitive ability may not be able to understand the lasting effects or consequences associated with their action... middle of paper... (2006). Empirical status of deterrence theory: A meta-analysis. Transaction Publications, Volume 15, 367-395.McGloin, P. a. (2004). Rethinking the IQ-Delinquency relationship: A longitudinal analysis of multiple theoretical models. Justice Quarterly, 604-635.Pratt, M. a. (2006). Maternal cigarette smoking during pregnancy and deviant criminal behavior. International Journal of Offender Therapy, 231-248. Pratt, T. C., & Cullen, F. T. (2005). Evaluating macro-level theories and predictors of crime. Crime and Justice, volume 32, 373-450. Pratt, T. C., & Godsey, T. W. (2003). Social support, inequality, and homicide: A cross-national test of the integrated theoretical model. Criminology, Volume 1, 611-632.Unnever, C. a. (2003). Parental management, ADHD, and delinquent involvement: Reevaluating the general theory of Gottfredson and Hirschis. Quarterly justice, 472-500.